Concrete & Its Uses

= Contents

= •Introduction

•History of Concrete

•The Chemistry of Concrete (I)

•The Chemistry of Concrete (II) <= /div>

•Why metal is used in Concrete

•Concrete: A Useful Alternative? =

•Concrete: General Information

•The Model

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Introduction

•W= e will briefly be discussing the History of Concrete and how it came about.

•

•C= oncrete is not cement, but a mixture of other compounds. We will be discussing the mixtures, the= ir ratios, and the uses of each compound. =

•

•W= e will be discussing how concrete is environmentally friendly compound.

•

•W= e will be discussing Concrete’s

• Tensile and Compression Stresses.

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History of Concrete

= •C= oncrete was first invented by the Romans circa 500 = B.C.

•T= he concrete process was forgotten during the middle = ages and was reintroduced in the 1300s.

•In= 1824 Joseph Aspdin of England invented Portland cement, a key ingredient in the making of concrete= and the first concrete reinforced bridge was built in 1889.

•N= owadays concrete is one

• of the key ingred= ients in

• buildings. Not on= ly because it

• is cheap, but because it is

• strong. It is also being further

• developed to protect people

• from earthquakes and erosion.

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The Chemistry of Concrete (I)

•Concrete is a mixture of cement, aggregate, water and air.

•Aggregates are the chemically in= ert, solid bodies held together by the cement. Examples are limestone and shale

•T= he selection of an aggregate is determined by the desired characteristics of the concrete.

•W= hen water is mixed with cement, it forms a paste that binds the aggregate together. This causes the hardening = of concrete (hydration) =

•H= ydration is a chemical

• reaction in which the major

• compounds in cement form

• chemical bonds with water

• molecules and become hydrates

• or hydration products.

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The Chemistry Of Concrete (II)

•The cement which is most commonly used is Portland <= span lang=3DEN-GB style=3D'font-size:75%'>Cement. This consists of 5 major comp= ounds. Tricalcium silicate, Dicalcium silica= te, Tricalcium alum= inate, Tetracalcium aluminoferrite and Gypsum.

•

•T= he following are the equations for the hydration process of the calcium silicates:

•

•T= ricalcium silicate + Water èCalcium silicate hydrate + Calci= um hydroxide + heat

•

•D= icalcium silicate + Water

• è= ; Calcium silicate hydrate

• + Calcium hydroxide +heat

•

•These are two of the main

• compounds found in

• Portland cement

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nuclear radiation

&= #13;

concrete for shielding against

steel or iron pellets =

used for making high density<= span style=3D'font-family:Times;mso-ascii-font-family:Times;mso-hansi-font-fami= ly: Times;font-size:57%;color:white;mso-color-index:3;mso-special-format:lastC= R; display:none'>

steel or iron shot

heavyweight

&= #13;

crushed recycled concrete<= /b>

&= #13;

river gravel

projects&= #13;

sand

used for normal concrete

crushed limestone

normal weight

insulating properties.

&= #13;

structures, also used for its

crushed brick

lightweight concrete for

shale or slate

used primarily for making

expanded clay

lightweight

for its insulating properties=

perlite

can be sawed or nailed, also =

ceramic spheres=

lightweight

lightweight concrete which

vermiculite

ultra-

&= #13;

&= #13;

Uses

examples of aggregates used

Class

&= nbsp;

Cla= sses of Aggregates

Tab= le1:

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Why metal is used in Concrete

•H= igh yield steel is applied to the concrete forms. This is = because concrete is high in compression strengths = but weak in tensile strength.

•S= tainless steel is also used in concrete as it is high in tensile strengths. It is cheap and protected from = corrosion inside the concrete. <= /div>
•Si= nce concrete is used a lot it is important that it is used properly for its applications. =

• For example in San

• Francisco earthquakes are

• frequent so special measures

• must be taken so that the

• building will be able to

• withstand the harsh tensile

• and compression strengths.

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The Effects of Acid rain on = Concrete.

•<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> 3 acids effect concrete Nitric, Sulphuric and Carbonic.

•E= quation1: Water + Carbon Dioxide àCar= bonic acid à Hydrogen ions + Hydrogen Carbonate ions

•E= quation 2:Calcium Carbonate + Carbonic acid à Calcium ions +Hy= drogen Carbonate ions

•E= quation3: SO2 à oxidation à= ; SO3 à H2O à= ;H2SO4<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> = ; ( falls as rain)= à= ; H2SO4 = + CaCO3à CaSO4 + HCO3 = is <= /span>washed away in solution.

•<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> To prevent use an aggregate that i= s not effected by acid rain = ex. Slate or granite don’t contain CaCO3.

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Concrete: A Useful Alternative?

•

•S= tructures that depend on concrete are dams.

•D= ams give people Hydro-Electric Power. They improve river navigation and increase trade as well as irrigation .

•T= he cons are farms or areas of land found down river from the dam may drown duet to the lack of water <= /span>coming from the dam.

•P= eople get flood control from t= he dam. If it breaks thousa= nds can lose their lives.=

•L= ife before the dam may drown = due to the excess amount of water <= /span>accumulating and drowning the land and animals.

•A= nything found after the dam may perish from not having enough water.

•

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Concrete: General Information

<= span style=3D'font-size:75%'>•The most commonly used concrete is Ready Mix concrete.
•The ratio of this concrete is 3 parts aggregate to= 1 part cement (3:1).= 3;
<= span style=3D'font-size:75%'>•The water added to the concrete needs to be pure as

• it is an important compound in the making of concrete.

•

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The Model

= •The Ratios of Cement : Aggregate : Water used were = 5:3:2 and 2:2:1.
•3 columns were made with the 5:3:2 ratio, as it was more workable, with this ratio the 2 larger columns were = made.

•The difference between the 2 larger columns is the placement of the metal. 1 column had = metal in the form of a = cross, whilst the other one in the form of a circle.

•The smallest column with this ratio has no metal, but it will prove to be weak for a building.=

•The last ratio, 2:2:1, used

• a circular pattern because

• concrete is high in

• compression strengths but

• weak in tensile strengths.

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g_scaleHyperlinks=3D(document.all.tags("AREA").length>0) if( g_scaleHyperlinks ) InitHLinkArray() if( g_scaleInFrame||(IsWin("PPTSld") && parent.IsFullScrMode() ) ) document.body.scroll=3D"no" _RSW() if( IsWin("PPTSld") && parent.IsFullScrMode() ) FullScrInit(); =09 MakeSldVis(); ChkAutoAdv() if( runAnimations ) { if( document.all("NSPlay") ) document.all("NSPlay").autoStart =3D false; if( sld.filters && sld.filters.revealtrans ) setTimeout( "document.body.start()", sld.filters.revealtrans.duration * = 1000 ); else document.body.start(); } } function MakeSldVis()=20 { var fTrans=3Dg_showAnimation && SldHasTrans() if( fTrans )=09 { if( g_bgSound ) { idx=3Dg_bgSound.indexOf(","); pptSound.src=3Dg_bgSound.substr( 0, idx ); pptSound.loop=3D -(parseInt(g_bgSound.substr(idx+1))); } SlideObj.filters.revealtrans.Apply()=09 } SlideObj.style.visibility=3D"visible" if( fTrans ) SlideObj.filters.revealtrans.Play() } function MakeNotesVis()=20 { if( !IsNts() ) return false=20 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{ return IsWin("PPTNts") } function IsSldOrNts() { return( IsWin("PPTSld")||IsWin("PPTNts") ) } function SupportsPPTAnimation() { return( navigator.platform =3D=3D "Win32"= && navigator.appVersion.indexOf("Windows")>0 ) } function SupportsPPTHTML() { var appVer=3Dnavigator.appVersion, msie=3DappVer.indexOf("MSIE "), ver=3D0 if( msie >=3D 0 ) ver=3DparseFloat( appVer.substring( msie+5, appVer.indexOf(";",msie) ) ) else ver=3DparseInt(appVer) return( ver >=3D 4 && msie >=3D 0 ) } function _RSW() { if( !g_supportsPPTHTML || IsNts() || ( !g_scaleInFrame && (!IsWin("PPTSld") || !parent.IsFullScrMode()) ) ) return var padding=3D0; if( IsWin("PPTSld") && parent.IsFramesMode() ) padding=3D6 cltWidth=3Ddocument.body.clientWidth-padding cltHeight=3Ddocument.body.clientHeight-padding factor=3D(1.0*cltWidth)/g_origW if( cltHeight < g_origH*factor ) factor=3D(1.0*cltHeight)/g_origH newSize =3D g_origSz * factor if( newSize < 1 ) newSize=3D1 s=3DSlideObj.style s.fontSize=3DnewSize+"px" s.posWidth=3Dg_origW*factor s.posHeight=3Dg_origH*factor s.posLeft=3D(cltWidth-s.posWidth+padding)/2 s.posTop=3D(cltHeight-s.posHeight+padding)/2 if( g_scaleHyperlinks ) ScaleHyperlinks( factor ) } function _InitAnimations() { animRuntimeInstalled =3D ''+document.body.localTime !=3D 'undefined'; isFullScreen =3D (window.name =3D=3D "PPTSld") && !parent.IsFramesMode(); g_animUseRuntime =3D g_showAnimation && animRuntimeInstalled && !(isFullSc= reen && parent.IsSldVisited()); if( g_animUseRuntime ) { collSeq =3D document.all.tags("seq"); if( collSeq !=3D null ) { for(ii=3D0;ii numSlds ) gSldJumpIdx =3D numSlds; if ( gSldJumpIdx >=3D 0 ) { if ( gSldJumpIdx =3D=3D 0 ) gSldJumpIdx =3D 1; var jumpTo =3D parseInt(gSldJumpIdx); gSldJump =3D 0; gSldJumpIdx =3D ""; win.GoToSld( parent.GetSldList().mList[jumpTo-1].mSldHref ) } } } function _KDH() { if( event.keyCode =3D=3D 8 ) { event.returnValue =3D 0; parent.GoToPrevSld(); } }function DocumentOnClick() { if( IsNts() || parent.HideMenu() ) return; if( ( g_allowAdvOnClick && (window.name=3D=3D"PPTSld") && !parent.IsFrames= Mode() ) || (event && event.keyCode=3D=3D32) ) { =09 if( g_animUseRuntime && g_animMainSequence && g_animMainSequence.cangonex= t ) return; parent.GoToNextSld(); } } var g_supportsPPTHTML =3D SupportsPPTHTML(), g_scaleInFrame =3D 1, gId=3D""= , g_bgSound=3D"", g_scaleHyperlinks =3D false, g_allowAdvOnClick =3D 1, g_showInBrowser = =3D 0, gLoopCont =3D 0, gUseSldTimings =3D 1; var g_showAnimation =3D g_supportsPPTHTML && SupportsPPTAnimation() && ( (w= indow.name=3D=3D"PPTSld" && !parent.IsFramesMode()) || g_showInBrowser );va= r g_animManager =3D null; var g_animUseRuntime =3D false; var g_animItemsToHide, g_animInteractiveItems, g_animSlideTime; var g_animMainSequence =3D null; var ENDSHOW_MESG=3D"End of slide show, click to exit.", SCREEN_MODE=3D"Fram= es", gIsEndShow=3D0, NUM_VIS_SLDS=3D12, SCRIPT_HREF=3D"script.js", FULLSCR_= HREF=3D"fullscreen.htm"; var gCurSld =3D gPrevSld =3D 1, g_offset =3D 0, gNtsOpen =3D gHasNts =3D gO= tlTxtExp =3D 0, gHasNarration =3D 0, gOtlOpen =3D true window.gPPTHTML=3DSupportsPPTHTML() var gMainDoc=3Dnew Array(new hrefList("slide0001.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList(= "slide0002.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0011.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("= slide0010.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0009.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("s= lide0008.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0006.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("sl= ide0007.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0017.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("sli= de0015.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0005.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slid= e0012.htm",1,-1,1)); /********************************************* Frameset functions These functions control slide navigation and state of the frameset. **********************************************/ function FullScrInit() { g_allowAdvOnClick =3D GetCurSld().mAdvOnClk document.body.style.backgroundColor=3D"black" document.oncontextmenu=3Dparent._CM; document.onkeydown =3D _KDH; document.ondragstart=3DCancel document.onselectstart=3DCancel self.focus() } function Redirect( frmId ) {=09 var str=3Ddocument.location.hash,idx=3Dstr.indexOf('#'), sId=3DGetSldId() if(idx>=3D0) str=3Dstr.substr(1); if( window.name !=3D frmId && ( sId !=3D str) ) { obj =3D GetObj("Main-File") window.location.href=3Dobj.href+"#"+sId return 1 } return 0 } var MHTMLPrefix =3D CalculateMHTMLPrefix();=20 function CalculateMHTMLPrefix() { if ( document.location.protocol =3D=3D 'mhtml:') {=20 href=3Dnew String(document.location.href)=20 Start=3Dhref.indexOf('!')+1=20 End=3Dhref.lastIndexOf('/')+1=20 if (End < Start)=20 return href.substring(0, Start)=20 else=20 return href.substring(0, End)=20 } return ''; } function GetTags(base,tag) { if(g_supportsPPTHTML) return base.all.tags(tag); else return base.getElementsByTagName(tag); } function UpdNtsPane(){ if(frames["PPTNts"]) PPTNts.location.replace( MHTMLP= refix+GetHrefObj( gCurSld ).mNtsHref ) } function UpdNavPane( sldIndex ){ if(gNavLoaded) PPTNav.UpdNav() } function UpdOtNavPane(){ if(gOtlNavLoaded) PPTOtlNav.UpdOtlNav() } function UpdOtlPane(){ if(gOtlLoaded) PPTOtl.UpdOtl() } function SetHasNts( fVal ) { if( gHasNts !=3D fVal ) { gHasNts=3DfVal UpdNavPane() } } function ToggleOtlText() { gOtlTxtExp=3D!gOtlTxtExp UpdOtlPane() } function ClearMedia() { // Clear any sounds playing before launching another browser window. Other= wise, // in fullscreen mode, you'll continue to hear the sound in the frames mod= e. if (PPTSld.pptSound) PPTSld.pptSound.loop =3D 0; } function FullScreen() {=20 if ( PPTSld.g_animUseRuntime ) PPTSld.document.body.pause(); ClearMedia(); var href =3D ( document.location.protocol =3D=3D 'mhtml:') ? FULLSCR_HREF = : FULLSCR_HREF+"#"+GetHrefObj(gCurSld).mSldHref; if(PPTNav.event.ctrlKey) { var w =3D (window.screen.availWidth * 1.0) / 2.0 var h =3D w * (PPTSld.g_origH * 1.0) / PPTSld.g_origW win =3D window.open( MHTMLPrefix+href,null,"toolbar=3D0,resizable=3D1,top= =3D0,left=3D0," + "width=3D"+ w + ",height=3D" + h ); if( win.document.body && PPTSld.g_animUseRuntime ) win.document.body.PPTSldFrameset=3Dwindow; } else { win =3D window.open( MHTMLPrefix+href,null,"fullscreen=3Dyes" ); if( win.document.body && PPTSld.g_animUseRuntime ) win.document.body.PPTSldFrameset=3Dwindow; } } function ToggleVNarration() { rObj=3DPPTSld.document.all("NSPlay") if( rObj && !PPTSld.g_animUseRuntime ) { if( (rObj.playState =3D=3D 1)||(rObj.playState =3D=3D 0) ) rObj.Play() else if( rObj.playState =3D=3D 2 ) rObj.Pause() else return; } else if( PPTSld.g_animUseRuntime ) { narObj =3D PPTSld.document.all("narrationID") if( narObj ) narObj.togglePause() } } function GetCurSldNum() { =20 obj=3DGetHrefObj(gCurSld) if( obj.mOrigVis =3D=3D 1 ) return obj.mSldIdx else =20 return gCurSld } function GetNumSlds() { =20 if( GetHrefObj(gCurSld).mOrigVis =3D=3D 1 ) return GetSldList().mNumVisSlds; else return GetSldList().mList.length } function GetSldNum( href ) { for(ii=3D0; ii 1 ) PopSldList(); else if( !IsFramesMode() ) { if( gLoopCont ) GoToFirst() else EndShow() } } function GoToPrevSld() { ii=3DgCurSld-1 if( ii > 0 ) { obj=3DGetHrefObj(ii) while ( obj && ( obj.mVis =3D=3D 0 ) && ( ii>0 ) ) obj=3DGetHrefObj(--ii) if( ii =3D=3D 0 ) ii=3D1 GoToSldNum(ii) } } function GoToFirst(){ GoToSld( GetHrefObj(1).mSldHref ) } function GoToLast() { ii=3DGetSldList().mList.length if( ii !=3D gCurSld ) GoToSld( GetHrefObj(ii).mSldHref ) } function GoToSldNum( num ) { if( PPTSld.event ) PPTSld.event.cancelBubble=3Dtrue obj =3D GetHrefObj( num ) obj.mVis=3D1 gPrevSld=3DgCurSld gCurSld =3D num; PPTSld.location.replace(MHTMLPrefix+obj.mSldHref) if( IsFramesMode() ) { UpdNavPane(); UpdOtlPane(); UpdNtsPane() } } function GoToSld( href ) { if( PPTSld.event ) PPTSld.event.cancelBubble=3Dtrue GetHrefObj( GetSldNum(href) ).mVis=3D1 PPTSld.location.replace(MHTMLPrefix+href) } function SldUpdated( id ) { if( id =3D=3D GetHrefObj(gCurSld).mSldHref ) return gPrevSld=3DgCurSld gCurSld=3DGetSldNum(id) if( IsFramesMode() ) { UpdNavPane(); UpdOtlPane(); UpdNtsPane() } } function PrevSldViewed(){ GoToSld( GetHrefObj(gPrevSld).mSldHref ) } function HasPrevSld() { return ( gIsEndShow || ( gCurSld !=3D 1 && GetHrefO= bj( gCurSld-1 ).mVis =3D=3D 1 )||( GetCurSldNum() > 1 ) ) } function HasNextSld() { return (GetCurSldNum() !=3D GetNumSlds()) } function CloseWindow() { if( HideMenu() ) return; =09 var event =3D PPTSld.event; if( !IsFramesMode() && event && (event.keyCode=3D=3D27 || event.keyCode=3D= =3D32 || event.type=3D=3D"click" ) ) window.close( self ); CatchNumKeys( self, event ); } function Unload() { gIsEndShow=3D0; } function SetupEndShow() { gIsEndShow=3D1; PPTSld.document.body.scroll=3D"no"; PPTSld.document.onkeypress=3DCloseWindow; PPTSld.document.onclick=3DCloseWindow; PPTSld.document.oncontextmenu=3D_CM; } function EndShow() { if( IsFramesMode() ) return if( PPTSld.event ) PPTSld.event.cancelBubble=3Dtrue doc=3DPPTSld.document var dir =3D doc.body.dir if( dir !=3D "rtl" ) dir =3D "ltr"; doc.open() doc.writeln('

' + ENDSHOW_MESG + '
') doc.close() } function SetSldVisited(){ GetSldList().mList[gCurSld-1].mVisited=3Dtrue } function IsSldVisited(){ return GetSldList().mList[gCurSld-1].mVisited } function hrefList( sldHref, visible, advDelay, advClk ) { this.mSldHref=3D this.mNtsHref =3D sldHref this.mOrigVis=3D this.mVis =3D visible this.mVisited=3D false this.mAdvDelay=3D advDelay this.mAdvOnClk=3D advClk } function SldList(arr,curSld,fEnd) { this.mCurSld =3D curSld; this.mList =3D new Array(); var idx =3D 1; for(ii=3D0;ii 0) { PushSldList(sldList,fEnd); gCurSld =3D 1; } else if( PPTSld.event ) PPTSld.event.cancelBubble=3Dtrue } function PushSldList(arr,fEnd) { var ii =3D gSldStack.length; gSldStack[ii] =3D new SldList(arr,gCurSld,fEnd); GoToSld( gSldStack[ii].mList[0].mSldHref ); } function PopSldList() { if (gSldStack[gSldStack.length-1].fEndShow) EndShow() else { gCurSld =3D gSldStack[gSldStack.length-1].mCurSld; gSldStack[gSldStack.length-1] =3D null; gSldStack.length--; var sldList =3D gSldStack[gSldStack.length-1]; GoToSld( sldList.mList[gCurSld - 1].mSldHref ); } } var custShowList=3Dnew Array(); /********************************************* Navigation button implementation There are 2 types of buttons: ImgBtn, TxtBtn implemented as function objects. They share a similiar interface so the event handlers can call SetActive, for example, on a button=20 object without needing to know exactly=20 what type of button it is. **********************************************/ //---------------------------------- function ImgBtn( oId,bId,w,action ) //---------------------------------- { var t=3Dthis t.Perform =3D _IBP t.SetActive =3D _IBSetA t.SetInactive=3D _IBSetI t.SetPressed =3D _IBSetP t.SetDisabled=3D _IBSetD t.Enabled =3D _IBSetE t.ChangeIcon =3D null t.UserAction =3D action t.ChgState =3D _IBUI t.mObjId =3D oId t.mBorderId=3D bId t.mWidth =3D w t.mIsOn =3D t.mCurState =3D 0 } function _IBSetA() { if( this.mIsOn ) { obj=3Dthis.ChgState( gHiliteClr,gShadowClr,2 ) obj.style.posTop=3D0 } } function _IBSetI() { if( this.mIsOn ) { obj=3Dthis.ChgState( gFaceClr,gFaceClr,1 ) obj.style.posTop=3D0=20 } } function _IBSetP() { if( this.mIsOn ) { obj=3Dthis.ChgState( gShadowClr,gHiliteClr,2 ) obj.style.posLeft+=3D1; obj.style.posTop+=3D1 } } function _IBSetD() { =20 obj=3Dthis.ChgState( gFaceClr,gFaceClr,0 ) obj.style.posTop=3D0=20 } function _IBSetE( state ) { var t=3Dthis GetObj( t.mBorderId ).style.visibility=3D"visible" if( state !=3D t.mIsOn ) { t.mIsOn=3Dstate if( state ) t.SetInactive() else t.SetDisabled() } } function _IBP() { var t=3Dthis if( t.mIsOn ) { if( t.UserAction !=3D null ) t.UserAction() if( t.ChangeIcon ) { obj=3DGetObj(t.mObjId) if( t.ChangeIcon() ) obj.style.posLeft=3Dobj.style.posLeft+(t.mCurState-4)*t.mWidth else obj.style.posLeft=3Dobj.style.posLeft+(t.mCurState-0)*t.mWidth } t.SetActive() } =20 } function _IBUI( clr1,clr2,nextState ) { var t=3Dthis SetBorder( GetObj( t.mBorderId ),clr1,clr2 ) obj=3DGetObj( t.mObjId ) obj.style.posLeft=3Dobj.style.posLeft+(t.mCurState-nextState)*t.mWidth-obj= .style.posTop t.mCurState=3DnextState return obj } //----------------------------------------- function TxtBtn( oId,oeId,action,chkState ) //----------------------------------------- { var t=3Dthis t.Perform =3D _TBP t.SetActive =3D _TBSetA t.SetInactive=3D _TBSetI t.SetPressed =3D _TBSetP t.SetDisabled=3D _TBSetD t.SetEnabled =3D _TBSetE t.GetState =3D chkState t.UserAction =3D action t.ChgState =3D _TBUI t.mObjId =3D oId t.m_elementsId=3D oeId t.mIsOn =3D 1 } function _TBSetA() { var t=3Dthis if( t.mIsOn && !t.GetState() ) t.ChgState( gHiliteClr,gShadowClr,0,0 ) } function _TBSetI() { var t=3Dthis if( t.mIsOn && !t.GetState() ) t.ChgState( gFaceClr,gFaceClr,0,0 ) } function _TBSetP() { if( this.mIsOn ) this.ChgState( gShadowClr,gHiliteClr,1,1 ) } function _TBSetD() { =20 this.ChgState( gFaceClr,gFaceClr,0,0 ) this.mIsOn =3D 0 } function _TBSetE() { var t=3Dthis if( !t.GetState() ) t.ChgState( gFaceClr,gFaceClr,0,0 ) else t.ChgState( gShadowClr,gHiliteClr,1,1 ) t.mIsOn =3D 1 } function _TBP() { var t=3Dthis if( t.mIsOn ) {=20 if( t.UserAction !=3D null ) t.UserAction() if( !t.GetState ) return if( t.GetState() ) t.SetPressed() else t.SetActive() } =20 } function _TBUI( clr1,clr2,lOffset,tOffset ) { SetBorder( GetObj( this.mObjId ),clr1,clr2 ) Offset( GetObj( this.m_elementsId ),lOffset,tOffset ) } function Offset( obj, top, left ){ obj.style.top=3Dtop; obj.style.left=3Dle= ft } function SetBorder( obj, upperLeft, lowerRight ) { s=3Dobj.style; s.borderStyle =3D "solid" s.borderWidth =3D 1=20 s.borderLeftColor =3D s.borderTopColor =3D upperLeft s.borderBottomColor=3D s.borderRightColor =3D lowerRight } function GetBtnObj(){ return gBtnArr[window.event.srcElement.id] } function BtnOnOver(){ b=3DGetBtnObj(); if( b !=3D null ) b.SetActive() } function BtnOnDown(){ b=3DGetBtnObj(); if( b !=3D null ) b.SetPressed() } function BtnOnOut(){ b=3DGetBtnObj(); if( b !=3D null ) b.SetInactive() } function BtnOnUp() { b=3DGetBtnObj() if( b !=3D null ) b.Perform() else Upd() } function GetNtsState(){ return parent.gNtsOpen } function GetOtlState(){ return parent.gOtlOpen } function GetOtlTxtState(){ return parent.gOtlTxtExp } function NtsBtnSetFlag( fVal ) { s=3Ddocument.all.item( this.m_flagId ).style s.display=3D"none" if( fVal ) s.display=3D"" else s.display=3D"none" } function _BSetA_Border(){ b =3D gBtnArr[this.mObjId]; if( b !=3D null ) b.S= etActive() } function _BSetI_Border(){ b =3D gBtnArr[this.mObjId]; if( b !=3D null ) b.S= etInactive() } function _BSetP_Border(){ b =3D gBtnArr[this.mObjId]; if( b !=3D null ) b.S= etPressed() } function _BSetA_BorderImg() {=20 b =3D gBtnArr[this.mBorderId]=20 if( b !=3D null && this.mIsOn && !b.GetState() ) { obj=3Dthis.ChgState( gHiliteClr,gShadowClr,2 ) obj.style.posTop=3D0 } } function _BSetI_BorderImg() {=20 b =3D gBtnArr[this.mBorderId] if( b !=3D null && this.mIsOn && !b.GetState() ) { obj=3Dthis.ChgState( gFaceClr,gFaceClr,1 ) obj.style.posTop=3D0 } } var gHiliteClr=3D"THREEDHIGHLIGHT",gShadowClr=3D"THREEDSHADOW",gFaceClr=3D"= THREEDFACE" var gBtnArr =3D new Array() gBtnArr["nb_otl"] =3D new TxtBtn( "nb_otl","nb_otlElem",parent.ToggleOtlPan= e,GetOtlState ) gBtnArr["nb_otlElem"] =3D new TxtBtn( "nb_otl","nb_otlElem",parent.ToggleOt= lPane,GetOtlState ) gBtnArr["nb_nts"] =3D new ImgBtn( "nb_nts","nb_ntsBorder",10,parent.ToggleN= tsPane ) gBtnArr["nb_nts"].SetActive =3D _BSetA_BorderImg; gBtnArr["nb_nts"].SetInactive =3D _BSetI_BorderImg; gBtnArr["nb_ntsBorder"] =3D new TxtBtn( "nb_ntsBorder","nb_ntsElem",parent.= ToggleNtsPane,GetNtsState ) gBtnArr["nb_ntsElem"] =3D new TxtBtn( "nb_ntsBorder","nb_ntsElem",parent.To= ggleNtsPane,GetNtsState ) gBtnArr["nb_prevBorder"] =3D gBtnArr["nb_prev"]=3D new ImgBtn( "nb_prev","n= b_prevBorder",30,parent.GoToPrevSld ) gBtnArr["nb_nextBorder"] =3D gBtnArr["nb_next"]=3D new ImgBtn( "nb_next","n= b_nextBorder",30,parent.GoToNextSld ) gBtnArr["nb_sldshw"]=3D new ImgBtn( "nb_sldshw","nb_sldshwBorder",18,parent= .FullScreen ) gBtnArr["nb_sldshwBorder"] =3D new TxtBtn( "nb_sldshw","nb_sldshwBorder",pa= rent.FullScreen,null ) gBtnArr["nb_sldshwBorder"].SetActive =3D _BSetA_Border; gBtnArr["nb_sldshwBorder"].SetInactive =3D _BSetI_Border; gBtnArr["nb_sldshwText"] =3D new TxtBtn( "nb_sldshw","nb_sldshwText",parent= .FullScreen,null ) gBtnArr["nb_sldshwText"].SetActive =3D _BSetA_Border; gBtnArr["nb_sldshwText"].SetInactive =3D _BSetI_Border; gBtnArr["nb_voice"] =3D gBtnArr["nb_voiceBorder"] =3D new ImgBtn( "nb_voice= ","nb_voiceBorder",18,parent.ToggleVNarration ) gBtnArr["nb_otlTxtBorder"] =3D gBtnArr["nb_otlTxt"]=3D new ImgBtn( "nb_otlT= xt","nb_otlTxtBorder",23,parent.ToggleOtlText ) gBtnArr["nb_ntsBorder"].m_flagId=3D "nb_nts" gBtnArr["nb_ntsBorder"].SetFlag =3D NtsBtnSetFlag gBtnArr["nb_otlTxt"].ChangeIcon=3D GetOtlTxtState /********************************************* Context menu implementation _CM() is the function that's hooked up to the oncontextmenu event. Once we're asked to show the menu, we first build it by creating DIVs on-the-fly. Then we position it=20 within the screen area so it doesn't get clipped. Creating the DIVs using createElement() means we don't have to write out any extra HTML into the slide HTML files. **********************************************/ var sNext=3D"Next",sPrev=3D"Previous",sEnd=3D"End Show",sFont=3D"Arial",sAr= row=3D"Arrow",sFreeform=3D"Freeform",sRect=3D"Rectangle",sOval=3D"Oval" function ShowMenu() { BuildMenu(); var doc=3DPPTSld.document.body,x=3DPPTSld.event.clientX+doc.scrollLeft,y= =3DPPTSld.event.clientY+doc.scrollTop m =3D PPTSld.document.all.item("ctxtmenu") m.style.pixelLeft=3Dx if( (x+m.scrollWidth > doc.clientWidth)&&(x-m.scrollWidth > 0) ) m.style.pixelLeft=3Dx-m.scrollWidth m.style.pixelTop=3Dy if( (y+m.scrollHeight > doc.clientHeight)&&(y-m.scrollHeight > 0) ) m.style.pixelTop=3Dy-m.scrollHeight m.style.display=3D"" } function _CM() { if( !parent.IsFullScrMode() ) return; if(!PPTSld.event.ctrlKey) { ShowMenu() return false } else HideMenu() } function BuildMenu() { if( PPTSld.document.all.item("ctxtmenu") ) return var mObj=3DCreateItem( PPTSld.document.body ) mObj.id=3D"ctxtmenu" mObj.style.visibility=3D"hidden" var s=3DmObj.style s.position=3D"absolute" s.cursor=3D"default" s.width=3D"120px" SetCMBorder(mObj,"menu","black") var iObj=3DCreateItem( mObj ) SetCMBorder( iObj, "threedhighlight","threedshadow" ) iObj.style.padding=3D2 CreateMenuItem( iObj,sNext,M_GoNextSld,M_True ) CreateMenuItem( iObj,sPrev,M_GoPrevSld,M_HasPrevSld ) =09 CreateSeparator( iObj ) CreateMenuItem( iObj,sEnd,M_End,M_True ) mObj.style.visibility=3D"visible" } function Cancel() { window.event.cancelBubble=3Dtrue; window.event.returnVa= lue=3Dfalse } function Highlight() { ChangeClr("activecaption","threedhighlight") } function Deselect() { ChangeClr("threedface","menutext") } function Perform() { e=3DPPTSld.event.srcElement if( e.type=3D=3D"menuitem" && e.IsActive() ) e.Action() else PPTSld.event.cancelBubble=3Dtrue } function ChangeClr( bg,clr ) { e=3DPPTSld.event.srcElement if( e.type=3D=3D"menuitem" && e.IsActive() ) { e.style.backgroundColor=3Dbg e.style.color=3Dclr } } function M_HasPrevSld() { return( parent.HasPrevSld() ) } function M_GoNextSld() { if( gIsEndShow ) M_End(); else GoToNextSld() } function M_GoPrevSld() { if( gIsEndShow ) { gIsEndShow=3D0; history.back();= PPTSld.event.cancelBubble=3Dtrue; } else GoToPrevSld() } function M_True() { return true } function M_End() { window.close( self ) } function CreateMenuItem( node,text,action,eval ) { var e=3DCreateItem( node ) e.type=3D"menuitem" e.Action=3Daction e.IsActive=3Deval e.innerHTML=3Dtext if( !e.IsActive() ) e.style.color=3D"threedshadow" e.onclick=3DPerform e.onmouseover=3DHighlight e.onmouseout=3DDeselect s=3De.style; s.fontFamily=3DsFont s.fontSize=3D"9pt" s.paddingLeft=3D2 } function CreateSeparator( node ) { var sObj=3DCreateItem( node ) SetCMBorder(sObj,"menu","menu") var s=3DsObj.style s.borderTopColor=3D"threedshadow" s.borderBottomColor=3D"threedhighlight" s.height=3D1 s.fontSize=3D"0px" } function CreateItem( node ) { var elem=3DPPTSld.document.createElement("DIV") node.insertBefore( elem ) return elem } function SetCMBorder( o,ltClr,rbClr ) { var s=3Do.style s.backgroundColor=3D"menu" s.borderStyle=3D"solid" s.borderWidth=3D1 s.borderColor=3DltClr+" "+rbClr+" "+rbClr+" "+ltClr } ------=_NextPart_01C572D0.B54DDC70 Content-Location: file:///C:/8E85C06C/SHconcreteFINAL_files/fullscreen.htm Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Type: text/html; charset="us-ascii" ------=_NextPart_01C572D0.B54DDC70 Content-Location: file:///C:/8E85C06C/SHconcreteFINAL_files/buttons.gif Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64 Content-Type: image/gif R0lGODlhWAESAPf4AAAAAIAAAACAAICAAAAAgIAAgACAgICAgAQEBISEBASEBISEhAQEhMTExAQE /KTM9Pz8/ERERPz8BAT8/KSkpGRkhMTcxCRkxAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMDAwP8AAAD/AP//AAAA//8A/wD//////yH5BAEAAPgALAAAAABYARIA QAj/APEJHEiwoMGDCBMqXMiwocOHECNKnEixosWLGCEiQKCRo8YDIEHig2DxAD4LKD1avDDhgUuV GUOGbHBR5QGYFBG4fHAB58EKECJEwCfUYAWPFGAygLCRKQIIUKM6WAohKUGgCikcFWh1INWoYKVS 7SrQ41GbIhGYLAuVQVOoC+IyXUuUAkG1HE3KFDhAwkgJc5/qDZmxsOHDiBMrXsy4sePDGyP7lChT 5MULmDPnlDw5YmW6FTNrfgi0aNGEZPEtbfo2bNTUpYeeRph69dPWrqvCNFuBIGG1A59CYPAVQtwF cw0OxWdTIOiBCQAjaAB17fOFII8voGmRc+eOkilm/z9OvTtnjN4hYk1YoT3H2rnBOphPAB9skgq3 2lcaX/5YnJVt9BloAar12UEIRGCZdQghMABI1Tn32IQUVthYexhmqGGGMBHAgIfEhSiiiATAtOGJ GnYI4ogsEldicAYOGNJGZaml3Y0L3NTZUBz1xlB0PUoUI0jlVWRSVN89xBKSGB1YU1TMoRfVBEle hR9HQs1GEHxQ3RZZbveZthxt/LEmXHyp5XWABSCpaRJwbM13gAACPHVccgJFgF+NEhqUAEkQSCfc ddhVhh5dVTaEAEsTUNlkZUWKN9BNGDE6QU8OrSdbllzpxyVTTrU21Uj3scfhp7nNpyoDaTIEJ3P9 If8J2kbLNYegg9JRBwGhFvbq66+ZUiDssMQWK2yHxiZLrInKNotss8l+B5yBrr5p2UIJvortANoC 6+234IbLla/elRtZjeamh5CC3Sb0YLvixivvYkDFGlZqBNh7r4n6goVvv6/ZlCicN+kL71ALTnpQ dCIZp7CihkLA3UQmoWRBogyxtBPGCTnZncVR1rSTo5nuydC/Eo8kUH+lOoTyyvjoCuZu+PjYIKLD rZybtrM1d10C0QXKEVz48GrQkEeWdFJKlbb0UmEeV0SzyC6RvNB646LWIVjUNeC1zAFb+RDKXksM 9r531bwmpQW9+hQDDsx5pqwDRWBXcFES2hc+gEn/wJGdEEWdE6LoWcoxQweaTNmkhydkKaYMYY2Q p1unbLl/pPKbn3v7EZRvrKvqlja2ONvrtoIw9tn2g32/tQBlhtYkU+MNikZ7QYlPDPuMldpOmuJX nVo5VF3HjI+q89mteX5IDd/fVFClma5kiE4f2XUJhlz09gj2NbTDRifkmu7zXjR++RVJ/lPznuvr QH2iD6S+UewP9Dnon6d2NLwN8n90BB6hC68cFMCHoe+ACASP9c4DowUyEF0OPFcDI0ij/VXPaAKC UfhS95AKGoQ7IBRICI1HwhGaUIQoLGEKT6jCFrLwhSuMoQtlCMMZ2rCGOKShDm+4wxzy8Ic+DGIP B4cIRCKGMCAAOy== ------=_NextPart_01C572D0.B54DDC70 Content-Location: file:///C:/8E85C06C/SHconcreteFINAL_files/frame.htm Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Type: text/html; charset="us-ascii" Concrete & Its Uses ------=_NextPart_01C572D0.B54DDC70 Content-Location: file:///C:/8E85C06C/SHconcreteFINAL_files/outline.htm Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Type: text/html; charset="us-ascii"

No= tes

Slide Show

Outline

1

Concrete
&
Its Uses

San Andrea Senior Scool
Stephen Hawking Science and Technology

COMENIUS 2

This project outlines the= uses of concrete and the effects of acid rain as a pollutant on concrete

By :

Luke Lapira & Kristian Psaila

2

Contents

Introduction

History of Concrete

The Chemistry of Concrete (I)

The Chemistry of Concrete (II)

Why metal is used in Concrete

Concrete: A Useful Alternative?

Concrete: General Information

The Model

3

Introduction=

We will briefly be discussing the History of Concrete and how it came about.

Concrete is not cement, but a mixture of other compounds. We will be discussing the mixtures, their ratios, and the uses of each compound= .

We will be discussing how concrete is environmentally friendly compo= und.

We will be discussing Concrete’s

Tensile and Compression Stresses.

4

History of Concr= ete

Concrete was first invented by the Romans circa 500 B.C.

The concrete process was forgotten during the middle ages and was reintroduced in the 1300s.

In 1824 Joseph Aspdin of England invented Portland cement, a key ingredient in the making of concrete and the first concrete reinforc= ed bridge was built in 1889.

Nowadays concrete is one

of the key ingredients in

buildings. Not only because it

is cheap, but because= it is

strong. It is also being further

developed to protect people

from earthquakes and erosion.

5

The Chemistry of Concrete (I)

Concrete is a mixture of cement, aggregate, water and air.

Aggregates are the chemically inert, solid bodies held together by t= he cement. Examples are limestone and shale

The selection of an aggregate is determined by the desired characteristics of the concrete.

When water is mixed with cement, it forms a paste that binds the aggregate together. This causes the hardening of concrete (hydration= )

Hydration is a chemical

reaction in which the major

compounds in cement form

chemical bonds with water

molecules and become hydrates

or hydration products.

6

The Chemistry Of Concrete (II)

The cement which is most commonly used is Portland Cement. This cons= ists of 5 major compounds. Tricalcium silicate, Dicalcium silicate, Tricalcium aluminate, Tetracalcium aluminoferrite and Gypsum.

The following are the equations for the hydration process of the cal= cium silicates:

Tricalcium silicate + Water èCalcium silicate hydrate + Calcium hydroxid= e + heat

Dicalcium silicate + Water

è

7

8

Why metal is use= d in Concrete

High yield steel is applied to the concrete forms. This is because concrete is high in compression strengths but weak in tensile streng= th.

Stainless steel is also used in concrete as it is high in tensile strengths. It is cheap and protected from corrosion inside the concr= ete.

Since concrete is used a lot it is important that it is used properly for its applications.

For example in San

Francisco earthquakes are

frequent so special measures

must be taken so that the

building will be able to

withstand the harsh tensile

and compression strengths.

9

The Effects of A= cid rain on Concrete.

3 acids effect concrete Nitric, Sulphuric and Carbonic.

Equation1: Water + Carbon Dioxide àCarbonic acid à Hydrogen ions + Hydrogen Carbonate ions

Equation 2:Calcium Carbonate + Carbonic acid = à Calcium ions +Hydrogen Carbonate ions

Equation3: SO₂à oxidation &a= grave; SO₃à H₂O àH₂SO_{4 =
;}( falls as rain)à<= /font> H₂SO₄+ CaCO₃à CaSO= ₄+ HCO₃ is was= hed away in solution.

To prevent use an aggr= egate that is not effected by acid rain ex. Slate or granite don’t contain CaCO₃.

10

Concrete: A Use= ful Alternative?

Structures that depend on concrete are dams.

Dams give people Hydro-Electric Power. They improve river navigation= and increase trade as well as irrigation .

The cons are farms or areas of land found down river from the dam may drown duet to the lack of water coming from the dam.

11

Concrete: General Information=

The most commonly used concrete is Ready Mix concrete.

The ratio of this concrete is 3 parts aggregate to 1 part cement (3:= 1).

The water added to the concrete needs to be pure as

it is an important compound in the making of concrete.

12

The Model

The Ratios of Cement : Aggregate : Water used were 5:3:2 and 2:2:1.<= /li>
3 columns were made with the 5:3:2 ratio, as it was more workable, w= ith this ratio the 2 larger columns were made.

The difference between the 2 larger columns is the placement of the metal. 1 column had metal in the form of a cross, whilst the other o= ne in the form of a circle.

The smallest column with this ratio has no metal, but it will prove = to be weak for a building.

The last ratio, 2:2:1, used

a circular pattern because

concrete is high in

compression strengths but

weak in tensile strengths.

= = = = = = = = = = = = = =
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1	Concrete & Its Uses San Andrea Senior Scool Stephen Hawking Science and Technology COMENIUS 2 This project outlines the= uses of concrete and the effects of acid rain as a pollutant on concrete By : Luke Lapira & Kristian Psaila
2	Contents Introduction History of Concrete The Chemistry of Concrete (I) The Chemistry of Concrete (II) Why metal is used in Concrete Concrete: A Useful Alternative? Concrete: General Information The Model
3	Introduction= We will briefly be discussing the History of Concrete and how it came about. Concrete is not cement, but a mixture of other compounds. We will be discussing the mixtures, their ratios, and the uses of each compound= . We will be discussing how concrete is environmentally friendly compo= und. We will be discussing Concrete’s Tensile and Compression Stresses.
4	History of Concr= ete Concrete was first invented by the Romans circa 500 B.C. The concrete process was forgotten during the middle ages and was reintroduced in the 1300s. In 1824 Joseph Aspdin of England invented Portland cement, a key ingredient in the making of concrete and the first concrete reinforc= ed bridge was built in 1889. Nowadays concrete is one of the key ingredients in buildings. Not only because it is cheap, but because= it is strong. It is also being further developed to protect people from earthquakes and erosion.
5	The Chemistry of Concrete (I) Concrete is a mixture of cement, aggregate, water and air. Aggregates are the chemically inert, solid bodies held together by t= he cement. Examples are limestone and shale The selection of an aggregate is determined by the desired characteristics of the concrete. When water is mixed with cement, it forms a paste that binds the aggregate together. This causes the hardening of concrete (hydration= ) Hydration is a chemical reaction in which the major compounds in cement form chemical bonds with water molecules and become hydrates or hydration products.
6	The Chemistry Of Concrete (II) The cement which is most commonly used is Portland Cement. This cons= ists of 5 major compounds. Tricalcium silicate, Dicalcium silicate, Tricalcium aluminate, Tetracalcium aluminoferrite and Gypsum. The following are the equations for the hydration process of the cal= cium silicates: Tricalcium silicate + Water èCalcium silicate hydrate + Calcium hydroxid= e + heat Dicalcium silicate + Water è	7
8	Why metal is use= d in Concrete High yield steel is applied to the concrete forms. This is because concrete is high in compression strengths but weak in tensile streng= th. Stainless steel is also used in concrete as it is high in tensile strengths. It is cheap and protected from corrosion inside the concr= ete. Since concrete is used a lot it is important that it is used properly for its applications. For example in San Francisco earthquakes are frequent so special measures must be taken so that the building will be able to withstand the harsh tensile and compression strengths.
9	The Effects of A= cid rain on Concrete. 3 acids effect concrete Nitric, Sulphuric and Carbonic. Equation1: Water + Carbon Dioxide àCarbonic acid à Hydrogen ions + Hydrogen Carbonate ions Equation 2:Calcium Carbonate + Carbonic acid = à Calcium ions +Hydrogen Carbonate ions Equation3: SO₂à oxidation &a= grave; SO₃à H₂O àH₂SO_{4 = ;}( falls as rain)à<= /font> H₂SO₄+ CaCO₃à CaSO= ₄+ HCO₃ is was= hed away in solution. To prevent use an aggr= egate that is not effected by acid rain ex. Slate or granite don’t contain CaCO₃.
10	Concrete: A Use= ful Alternative? Structures that depend on concrete are dams. Dams give people Hydro-Electric Power. They improve river navigation= and increase trade as well as irrigation . The cons are farms or areas of land found down river from the dam may drown duet to the lack of water coming from the dam.
11	Concrete: General Information= The most commonly used concrete is Ready Mix concrete. The ratio of this concrete is 3 parts aggregate to 1 part cement (3:= 1). The water added to the concrete needs to be pure as it is an important compound in the making of concrete.
12	The Model The Ratios of Cement : Aggregate : Water used were 5:3:2 and 2:2:1.<= /li> 3 columns were made with the 5:3:2 ratio, as it was more workable, w= ith this ratio the 2 larger columns were made. The difference between the 2 larger columns is the placement of the metal. 1 column had metal in the form of a cross, whilst the other o= ne in the form of a circle. The smallest column with this ratio has no metal, but it will prove = to be weak for a building. The last ratio, 2:2:1, used a circular pattern because concrete is high in compression strengths but weak in tensile strengths.